In retrospect, the definition of chemistry has changed over time, as
new discoveries and theories add to the functionality of the science.
The term "chymistry", in the view of noted scientist Robert Boyle in 1661, meant the subject of the material principles of mixed bodies. In 1663 the chemist Christopher Glaser
described "chymistry" as a scientific art, by which one learns to
dissolve bodies, and draw from them the different substances on their
composition, and how to unite them again, and exalt them to a higher
perfection.
The 1730 definition of the word "chemistry", as used by Georg Ernst Stahl,
meant the art of resolving mixed, compound, or aggregate bodies into
their principles; and of composing such bodies from those principles. In 1837, Jean-Baptiste Dumas considered the word "chemistry" to refer to the science concerned with the laws and effects of molecular forces.
This definition further evolved until, in 1947, it came to mean the
science of substances: their structure, their properties, and the
reactions that change them into other substances - a characterization
accepted by Linus Pauling. More recently, in 1998, Professor Raymond Chang broadened the definition of "chemistry" to mean the study of matter and the changes it undergoes.
The word chemistry comes from alchemy,
which referred to an earlier set of practices that encompassed elements
of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, astrology, astronomy, mysticism
and medicine. It is often seen as linked to the quest to turn lead or
another common starting material into gold,though in ancient times the study encompassed many of the questions of
modern chemistry being defined as the study of the composition of
waters, movement, growth, embodying, disembodying, drawing the spirits
from bodies and bonding the spirits within bodies by the early 4th
century Greek-Egyptian alchemist Zosimos.An alchemist was called a 'chemist' in popular speech, and later the suffix "-ry" was added to this to describe the art of the chemist as "chemistry".
Chemistry as science
The development of the modern scientific method
was slow and arduous, but an early scientific method for chemistry
began emerging among early Muslim chemists, beginning with the 9th
century Persian or Arabian chemist Jābir ibn Hayyān (known as "Geber" in Europe), who is sometimes referred to as "the father of chemistry". He introduced a systematic and experimental approach to scientific research based in the laboratory, in contrast to the ancient Greek and Egyptian alchemists whose works were largely allegorical and often unintelligble. Under the influence of the new empirical methods propounded by Sir Francis Bacon and others, a group of chemists at Oxford, Robert Boyle, Robert Hooke and John Mayow
began to reshape the old alchemical traditions into a scientific
discipline. Boyle in particular is regarded as the founding father of
chemistry due to his most important work, the classic chemistry text The Sceptical Chymist where the differentiation is made between the claims of alchemy and the empirical scientific discoveries of the new chemistry. He formulated Boyle's law, rejected the classical "four elements" and proposed a mechanistic alternative of atoms and chemical reactions that could be subject to rigorous experiment.
The theory of phlogiston (a substance at the root of all combustion) was propounded by the German Georg Ernst Stahl in the early 18th century and was only overturned by the end of the century by the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier,
the chemical analogue of Newton in physics; who did more than any other
to establish the new science on proper theoretical footing, by
elucidating the principle of conservation of mass and developing a new system of chemical nomenclature used to this day.
Before his work, though, many important discoveries had been made,
specifically relating to the nature of 'air' which was discovered to be
composed of many different gases. The Scottish chemist Joseph Black (the first experimental chemist) and the Dutchman J. B. van Helmont discovered carbon dioxide, or what Black called 'fixed air' in 1754; Henry Cavendish discovered hydrogen and elucidated its properties and Joseph Priestley and, independently, Carl Wilhelm Scheele isolated pure oxygen.
In his periodic table, Dmitri Mendeleev predicted the existence of 7 new elements,and placed all 60 elements known at the time in their correct places.
English scientist John Dalton proposed the modern theory of atoms; that all substances are composed of indivisible 'atoms' of matter and that different atoms have varying atomic weights.
The development of the electrochemical theory of chemical
combinations occurred in the early 19th century as the result of the
work of two scientists in particular, J. J. Berzelius and Humphry Davy, made possible by the prior invention of the voltaic pile by Alessandro Volta. Davy discovered nine new elements including the alkali metals by extracting them from their oxides with electric current.
British William Prout
first proposed ordering all the elements by their atomic weight as all
atoms had a weight that was an exact multiple of the atomic weight of
hydrogen. J. A. R. Newlands devised an early table of elements, which was then developed into the modern periodic table of elementsin the 1860s by Dmitri Mendeleev and independently by several other scientists including Julius Lothar Meyer. The inert gases, later called the noble gases were discovered by William Ramsay in collaboration with Lord Rayleigh at the end of the century, thereby filling in the basic structure of the table.
Organic chemistry was developed by Justus von Liebig and others, following Friedrich Wöhler's synthesis of urea which proved that living organisms were, in theory, reducible to chemistry.Other crucial 19th century advances were; an understanding of valence bonding (Edward Frankland in 1852) and the application of thermodynamics to chemistry (J. W. Gibbs and Svante Arrhenius in the 1870s).
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